The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an autonomous international organisation established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982. It became operational in 1994, when UNCLOS entered into force. Its headquarters is in Kingston, Jamaica.

The ISA organises and controls mineral-related activities in the international seabed Area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Its responsibilities include regulating exploration and any authorised exploitation of seabed mineral resources, protecting the marine environment from harmful effects of such activities, and ensuring that activities are conducted in accordance with UNCLOS and the applicable legal framework.

The international seabed Area

Under UNCLOS, the Area refers to the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. It does not include the water column above it, which is governed by separate rules of international law.

The mineral resources of the Area are regarded as the common heritage of humankind under UNCLOS. This means that no State can claim sovereignty over the Area or appropriate its mineral resources as its own territory. Activities must be conducted under the international regime established by UNCLOS, with due regard to environmental protection and the interests of humanity as a whole.

The ISA''s jurisdiction does not extend to mineral extraction within the territorial seas or other maritime zones under a coastal State''s national jurisdiction. Such activities are governed primarily by the coastal State''s laws, subject to applicable international law.

India''s deep-sea exploration

India''s deep-sea exploration programme aims to study and sustainably explore marine resources, improve understanding of ocean ecosystems and develop indigenous underwater technologies. It is supported by the Deep Ocean Mission, launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in 2021.

India''s activities include exploration for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. India has entered into exploration contracts with the ISA for specified areas of the international seabed. These contracts grant exploration rights subject to international rules; they do not confer sovereignty over those areas.

MATSYA-6000

MATSYA-6000 is a human-occupied scientific submersible being developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) under India''s Deep Ocean Mission. It is designed to carry a crew of three to a depth of approximately 6,000 metres.

The submersible will enable scientists to observe deep-sea ecosystems, collect samples, study geological formations and investigate mineral resources. Its development also supports India''s technological self-reliance in deep-sea exploration, underwater engineering and marine research.

India''s exploration regions and mineral resources

India''s deep-sea exploration footprint includes areas of the Central Indian Ocean Basin and parts of the Indian Ocean ridge systems. The Central Indian Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge are relevant geographical features in the Indian Ocean''s tectonic and mineral-resource context.

Polymetallic nodules, found on the deep ocean floor, contain manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper. Polymetallic sulphides are associated with hydrothermal activity along submarine volcanic regions and may contain copper, zinc, gold and silver. Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts occur on some seamounts and underwater elevations.

These resources may be important for batteries, electronics and clean-energy technologies. However, deep-sea mining poses risks to marine biodiversity, seabed habitats and sediment systems, and scientific understanding of its long-term ecological impacts remains incomplete.

International seabed governance vs India''s national waters

Challenges and significance

International seabed governance must balance the potential economic value of seabed minerals with environmental protection, scientific uncertainty and equitable benefit-sharing. Deep-sea mining may disturb fragile habitats, generate sediment plumes and affect organisms that grow and reproduce slowly. Effective environmental assessment, monitoring and transparent international regulation are therefore essential.

For India, deep-sea exploration can support scientific research, technological self-reliance and long-term resource security. At the same time, India must ensure that exploration and any future exploitation follow international obligations and appropriate environmental safeguards.